Svenska Handelsbanken Case Analysis

1. Answer to case â€Å"Svenska Handelsbanken† No t e b o o k: Cre at e d : 5. Org Control 2012-05-08 10:45 Up d at e d : 2012-05-08 23:31 1. Using the 7S-model, describe what are the elements and the linkages in Svenska Handelsbanken. Which one of the 7 components is vital? Provide arguments for each of your descriptions, and not mere conclusions. 7 S model consists of 7 elements which are Strategy,Structure, System, Shared Value, Style, Staff, Skills. Applying 7S model to Handelsbanken : Strategy : cost-efficiency => â€Å"low cost† competition. doing safe investment, avoiding speculation. risk control) international expansion. differentiate with customized service/products, targeting for those â€Å"picky† customer concerning about quality of service. use â€Å"network effect† for marketing. (use word of mouth to market their products). focus on small / middle sized customers. open branches close to those giant corporates. provide financial support to N ordic companies who expand internationally. Structure: Handesbanken is a typical decentralized (in term of division/geography) company, which consists of many autonomous branches. Those autonomous branches have large amount of control and responsiblity. lat management : The only layers between branches and CEO is a group of 11 regional manager. therefore the hierarchy of whole company is very flat. (add CFO or something else †¦. ) System : there is no top-down goal setting and annual budgeting. branches compete with each other in term of RoE => league table HRM system => incentive system, employee holdings (Trust company). (put into System or Staff or Share Value, ) Risk control bottom-up product development process. cost management system (both committee and branch manager), Shared Value: (culture) core : customer-oriented. need better wording ) culture of thrift. senor of ownership => from employee level to branch level. people recognition innovation growing people ( ) Au tonomous (structure ) Style : long term orientated customer focused style. (preservative) responsive to customer request. empowerment (share value or style ) Staff : recruit people who has inner drive, self-starting, committed to service. entrepreneurship for the branch manager extrovert/open/out-going Skills: with considerable banking experience. entrepreneurship skill is a must for branch manager. ross-selling skills which one is vital ? (provide evidence) shared value is vital. because it is the internal driver for other six. candidates : strategy, staff, structure. 2. What are the Critical Success Factors (CSFs) for the Handelsbanken’s decentralization approach? Provide arguments WHY these are key – base your answer on examples and arguments from your group's own business and work experiences and not on ‘copy & paste' from other sources. People =; entrepreneur. (Christian) responsibility of control cost/earning profit/risk management, down to individuals. l ocal resources and market.Customer-orientation (Christian, to provide live example) Autonomy (elaine, to provide live example from her own company to support this point). 3. What does this tell us about the key sources for success of ANY decentralized business? empowerment/autonomy (control & responsibility down to branch) foster the competition among decentralized units. use KPI to closely monitor the performance of decentralized units. Shared value amongst all branches. systematic support from head office for all units. ( ) 4. What are the challenges that Lars Kahnlund faces in this particular organization, in his efforts to drive change and accelerate growth? alance the culture of autonomy and directive approach. =; branch has strong motivation to control its own product and service. =; from perspective of entire company, new competitive products may be also needed. really hard to control the decentralized unit, because there are so many branches out there and structure is so fla t. how would he get his strategy executed effectively and efficiently ? how can we keep them in order ? too many culture in different areas, so he needs to take care culture conflicts. resistance from employees is expected. (elaborate on this later, including the perservative culture)

Compagnie du Froid Analysis Essay

Memorandum Campagnie Du Froid is a summer ice-cream business founded in 1985 by the father of Jacques Truman. In 2007, after the passing of his father, Jacques Truman took over the business and emphasized an aggressive growth strategy. By 2009, Campagnie Du Froid was a market leader in the eastern part of France, northeastern coast of Spain, and northern Italy. Each region had its own manager and the main headquarters was located in Paris. Jacques believed decentralizing the decision making as much as possible. Each region had its own manufacturing, marketing, distribution and sales organization. The central office took care of accounting, developing of new products, and sharing of learning experiences across the regions. Each year Jacques met with the regional managers to discuss a profit plan for each region. The profit plans laid out regional goals for the upcoming year and were used as a tool to monitor performance. During the summer months, a profit statement every two weeks was generated and sent to Jacques in order to detect any major problems. The France region is run by Jean Pinoux and had performed exceptionally well in 2009 with profits above budget and sales increasing by 20% from the previous year. Jean had stumbled across a new source of revenue in which he helped deliver packaged food for regional producers using the company’s refrigerated trucks. The incremental cost to provide the service was very low and was seen by Jean as a simple way to increase revenue. Jacques was surprised by Jean’s new initiative, but acknowledged the profit potential in the distribution business. Pierre Giraux is the manager of the Italian region. The 2009 sales goals were met and Pierre had expanded business into most of the western Italian coast, but suffered from higher wages and lower efficiency than expected, which hindered performance of the region. Andres Molas is the manager of the Spanish region and his performance had been outstanding up until 2009. There had been many problems that sprung up in 2009 causing the performance of the Spanish region to decline. The first  problem was the new machines weren’t working correctly until late August which caused them to run out of capacity several times. The Spanish division had to import product from the French division at a transfer price of full cost plus 5% profit for the manufacturer. On top of that, the Spanish division had to absorb expenses of people traveling to France to fit the Spanish packaging to the French production line. Lastly, there were unseasonably cold temperatures that had driven down tourism and demand. As a result, Andres had to cut prices in order to stimulate demand and keep with competition. Traditionally, each manager was given the same bonus of 2% of corporate profits, but the results in 2009 challenged the fairness of this evaluation system. The Spanish region performed extremely poor and had driven down company’s profits to the lowest it’s been in ten years. Jacques thought it was unfair for the French and Italian managers to pay for the problems of the Spanish region but wasn’t sure Andres Molas was to blame for the poor results. Jacques Truman needs to make many decisions regarding the evaluation and performance of each region. In order to properly evaluate the difference between the expected profit versus the actual profit in the Italian region, a causal analysis was conducted on the Italian region. The causal analysis in Exhibit 1 allowed us to better understand the Italian business. First, we evaluated the impact of the change in sales volume. The sales volume variance (Flexible budget in Euros – Static Budget in Euros) produced a sales variance of â‚ ¬119 for Ice Cream sales and â‚ ¬34 for Specialty sales; this represented a profit variance of â‚ ¬58. While the sales volume variance is important, it is also important to understand the amount of sales growth that is attributed to the temperature change versus actual performance of the business. There was â‚ ¬19 worth of growth strictly from the change in temperature between both ice cream sales and specialty sales. The profit side of the causal analysis resulted in a â‚ ¬8 variance attributed to the temperature change and a â‚ ¬5 0 variance related to performance which resulted in a total volume for profit increase of â‚ ¬58. The change in prices also had an impact on the Italian region’s expected and actual profit because the â‚ ¬7 total sales variance  represented an increase of â‚ ¬7 profit for the actual profit. The â‚ ¬7 variance was calculated by the favorable â‚ ¬20 variance for ice cream sales and an unfavorable variance of â‚ ¬13 for specialty sales (â‚ ¬20-â‚ ¬13=â‚ ¬7). This proves that the Italian region can charge slightly more for their ice cream sales given the increase in demand, while the increase in demand of the specialty product could be more attributed to the decrease in price. Overall, the change in pricing came out to make a positive impact on the Italian region’s profit. The cost of raw materials impacted the actual profit through the price variance and the quantity variance of the direct materials. Using the level 3 analysis, it was determined that the price variance was favorable â‚ ¬46 and the quantity variance was unfavorable â‚ ¬17 which represented a flexible budget variance of favorable â‚ ¬29. This impacts the profit because the Italian region was very efficient with their costs of direct materials, but the Italian region came up short in their manufacturing efficiencies as they experienced an unfavorable quantity variance of â‚ ¬17. An overall favorable flexible budget variance of â‚ ¬29 represents a positive impact on the profit for direct materials. The cost of labor impacted the actual profit through the rate variance and the efficiency variance of the direct labor. Using the level 3 analysis, it was calculated that there was an unfavorable rate variance of â‚ ¬2 and an unfavorable efficiency variance of â‚ ¬11. This impacts the profit because the Italian region paid more for their labor than expected, which turned into an unfavorable variance of â‚ ¬2; this variance is related to the changes in the prices of labor. Also, the Italian region was not as efficient with their labor forces which showed in the unfavorable efficiency variance of â‚ ¬11; this is related to the labor efficiency of the workforce. Overall, the impact of the direct labor was negative to the profit as the Italian region was both inefficient and paid more per labor hour than estimated. The fixed costs impacted the actual profit by having an unfavorable variance of â‚ ¬20. This shows that the Italian region was slightly less cost conscious with some of their fixed costs and this negatively impacted the profit. After considering all of the different components of the profit of the Italian region through a causal analysis, the Italian region experienced a favorable variance of â‚ ¬58 on their overall profit. The manager of the Italian region should be evaluated relative to multiple criteria to gain a holistic view of his region’s performance. In order to compare the three regions together, causal analyses were performed for each region, see Exhibits 1-3. The first crucial measure should be sales growth, and this goes for all regions, not just the Italian region. Sales growth year-over-year is crucial to any business because businesses become more expensive to run as time goes on due to inflation. It is best to look at sales quantities relative to changes in price because if you were to just look at changes in quantity sold, the manager could steeply decrease the price just to make his or her performance look stronger. The next crucial measure should be price and quantity variance. Price variance shows how strong of a negotiator a manager is with suppliers, which can result in huge cost savings. Quantity variance shows how efficient workers are in producing products. A favorable qu antity variance evidences workers are not creating much scrap, and therefore are saving money. Another key indicator of manager performance is labor efficiency variance because it shows how productive workers are when producing product. A strong labor efficiency variance shows that the manager is staying on top of workers and demanding consistently strong performance from them. We do not believe that much weight should be put on labor rate variance because the manager often has little control due to unionization and government regulations within the area of operation. The above measurements of effectiveness of the Italian region and more specifically, the Italian manager can be found in Exhibit 1 which breaks down the relevant variances in determining the appropriate evaluation of the Italian manager. The more specific-scope variances mentioned are shown in Exhibit 6. All of the above tie into the bigger picture variances, which are the flexible-budget variance and the sales-volumes variance, which are shown in Exhibit 5 for Italy in 2009. These then roll into the static-budge t, which determines if a manager met the profit plan for the region, which is shown in Exhibit 4 for Italy in 2009. This gives a rather vague view, and can sometimes distort how a manager truly performed unless the variances that roll into it are investigated further. Both the manager of the French region and Spanish region should be judged on  similar criteria as the Italian region manager besides a few small nuances that France and Spain have in their operations. All of the measurements mentioned above in analyzing the Italian region manager’s performance should be used for France and Spain, as these measurements provide the same value no matter the region. A causal analysis for both France and Spain were conducted and can be found in Exhibits 2 and 3, respectively. For France, the more specific scope variances, flexible-budget and sales-volume variances, and the static-budget variance are shown in Exhibits 9, 8 and 7, respectively. For Spain, the more specific scope variances, flexible-budget and sales-volume variances, and the static-budget variance are shown in Exhibits 12, 11 and 10, respectively. France’s revenue from distribution should be taken out of all variance analyses it is considered in because the other regions do n ot have this service in place, and it would distort the view of relative performance. Also, France’s revenue should not include the 5% markup for transferring product to Spain because this is an intercompany sale and is not based on France’s customer demand but instead is based on Spain’s. We believe it is therefore necessary to remove the 5% markup from the purchase price for Spain because this will cause a heavily unfavorable price variance for direct materials. We feel that it is best to instead take this as a qualitative judgment in the manager’s performance in the sense that sales are outpacing inventory. It can also be noted that competitors have generally shown to steeply decrease market prices when demand weakens, but we feel this is best to account for qualitatively instead of through what seems to be an arbitrary measure of change in sales relative to temperature. It should be the regional manager’s job to address the decrease in the demand instead of have it be excused due to temperature change. In evaluating performance, it can be noted that the conditions did not allow for demand as strong as in other regions, but should not allow for a manager’s performance to be comparable to a region with widely stronger sales. Please note the standards used for Compagnie du Froid are listed in Exhibit 13. Based on our analysis of each of the regions’ performance for the year of 2009 and other important information, we believe that Italy’s regional manager did the best job. First and foremost, the region exceeded profit  expectations are set forth in the profit plan, as shown in Exhibit 6. Italy also earned favorable variances relative to both the flexible-budget variance and the sales-volume variance. The more specific-scope variances were strong as well with the only major weakness being in the quantity variance for ice-cream, but the strength of the other variances outweighs this one significant weakness that can easily be improved through training or overall experience. The direct labor efficiency variance is the only relatively weak variance, however Mr. Trumen noted that new machines were causing labor efficiency issues. It was mentioned that this was included in the profit plan already, however it can be expected that this variance will fluctuate until the equipment begins running normally. Revenue growth also exceeded expectations, which as mentioned earlier, is key to growing any business and maintaining positive cash flows. There are three main problems that Jacques Truman appears to be facing. The first problem involves whether or not to change how much each manager receives as a bonus. Each manager’s bonus is currently calculated at a fixed 2% of corporate profits but after the poor performance of the Spanish division during 2009 has Jacques considering new ways to evaluate each manger’s bonus. Jacques is considering whether to link each manager’s bonus to a performance measure such as a profit plan, revenue growth, or some overall economic measure of results. A second problem is how to calculate transfer pricing from one division to another. The Spanish division was charged full cost plus a 5% profit margin from the French division. Andres Molas believed this was way too much for a transfer price and in turn made his division look bad. Jacques needs to decide for current and future purposes on how to handle transfer pricing in case of a similar event happening again. The third problem involves whether or not to allow Jean Pinoux of the French division to continue providing the distributing services to regional food producers. Jean claims the distributing services add extra revenue with very little incremental cost. Jacques needs to decide whether Jean’s claims of the distributing services are true. After careful analysis of all three problems, we’ve developed some recommendations for Jacques Truman to consider. Our first recommendation involves implementing a new way to calculate the performance bonuses managers receive at the end of  each year. We don’t believe that every manager should simply receive 2% of corporate profits. Each manager’s performances can be measured by a variety growth metrics and budget variances while also taking qualitative factors into consideration. The growth metrics that should be considered are things like sales growth year-to-year and sales quantities relative to changes in price. Varian ces that should be considered are: price variance, quantity variance, and labor efficiency variance. Qualitative factors such as unseasonal temperature changes and intercompany transfer of product should also be taken into consideration. For reasons discussed earlier, we believe considering these metrics will give the most accurate view of each manager’s performance. Using these benchmarks will allow Campagnie Du Froid to calculate a more appropriate performance bonus for each manager. The second recommendation involves how transfer prices should be calculated between divisions. Assuming there are no capacity constraints at the French division because of the two new machines it just bought, transfer pricing should be set at the variable cost per litre of â‚ ¬2.76. When the French division has excess capacity, there is no opportunity cost to be lost and it should be indifferent for them to make these extra units for the Spanish division. Fixed costs don’t need to be added to the transfer price because they will be incurred regardless and the 5% profit margin is unnec essary because all profits eventually go to corporate. This will cut transfer costs for the Spanish division by â‚ ¬0.77per litre and â‚ ¬459,000 total. This type of transfer pricing will be beneficial to the buying division in the future and allow it to spend less when it runs into these types problems. The third recommendation involves the new distribution arrangements that Jean Pinoux wants to engage in the French division. In 2009, revenues from distribution were â‚ ¬79,000. The incremental costs for delivery expenses were â‚ ¬47,000 and â‚ ¬3,000 for depreciation of the trucks. The revenues from distribution outweigh the incremental costs by â‚ ¬29,000; therefore we recommend the French division continues with the new distribution arrangements. We believe these recommendations will help Campagnie Du Froid become a more efficient and profitable company.

Character of Mrs. Sparsit in Hard Times

MRS. sparsit is an elderly lady who is highly connected and have a huge aristpcratic bvackground. her husband belonged to the family of â€Å"POWERLS†. Scadgers†¦. she is a widow now, fallen yupon evil days to take up job. She works as a housekeeper olf mr. Josiah Bounderby. bounderby treats her in the most polite manner and never fails to pay compliments and regards to her excellent background. Mrs. Sparsit is very much proud of her coonnectipons.The jnovelist descxribes her as a p;erson haveing dense black Coriolanian eyebrows and a thick roman nose with classical eyes.. o stress on her aristocratic background in a satirical way. dickens have also mafde her the object of satire with reference to her pride and vanity for her high connections. It is because of this pride that sjhe shares her employers contempt for the workers. It is due to this disdain she treats Stephen Blackpool with total lack of symparthy when he comes tp Bounderby to discuss his matrimonial troubles. she even regards him as an â€Å"Impiety of people†. Bounderby's decesipn top marry Loiusa ; Gradgrind's daughter is obviously unfavourable to MRs.Sparsits, bu t she dint utterd a word against it,. Bounderby was aware of her dissaproval regarding his marrige so hi took a bottle of smelling salts witrh him under the impression that she wou;d faint on hearing the unwelcomed news. But to the utter surprise of Bounderby she saw no sign of trouble or dissaproval on her face. Instead she looked at him in a pityful manner and extended her goodwishes to bounderby. BOunderby seems to understand mrs. sparsit well therefore he asserted at once dat his housekeeper woyuld not be abel to beer the site of hiss would be wife.

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Exam 2 - Essay Example Strategic staffing can be defined as the process that companies utilize to identify and deal with the staffing implications of specific business plans and strategies. It includes both the idea of identifying and tackling, but not either of the two. Some organizations implement strategic staffing only to assist them identify problems like staffing gaps; in which demand surpasses supply, or surpluses; in which supply surpasses demand. Even though this identification process is essential, it is also inadequate. Strategic staffing is helpful solely when the procedure also defines what the company ought to do to reduce or eliminate those surpluses and staffing gaps most efficiently. Strategic staffing can also be defined to mean a process towards change. Emphasizing change means that staffing insinuations should be identified and discussed continuously, any time changes are made to the business plan, not just once per year (Bechet 51). Mostly, organizations perceive that the aim of strategic staffing is to forecast future staffing requirements. They then attempt to define staffing activities that must be considered in that context to get rid of issues that may or may not come up in the future. This move cannot be accurately achieved, while at the same time, has little or no impact to the company. As a result, some organizations give up to the procedure immediately since their managers have no understanding, knowledge, and skills to predict their lasting staffing needs reliably. The objective is therefore to develop a long-term context in which the most efficient short-term decisions can be made. For a company to develop a strategic staffing plan that is successful, it has to encounter several issues or problems. This can include lack of specificity on expected competencies, invalid data for making sound decisions, and poor

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Reducing Secondhand Smoke on Children - Research Paper Example in Shaw et al., 2012). Equally important, the numbers of children who report second-hand smoke at home has largely increased over time. Quite surprisingly however, most of the children who report second hand smoke exposure point out that they have at least one of their parents smoking (Shaw et al., 2012). This therefore shows that there is a very close correlation between the pervasiveness of second-hand smoke exposure in children in homes and the increasing number of people who smoke. In the disadvantaged areas where smoking rates are higher than the average and the rehabilitation rates are lower, the topic of second-hand smoke exposure has become a major issue that has affected the children. To elaborate, previous researchers have found out that socio-economic status of people living in different areas has largely influenced the prevalence of people smoking due to lack of employment or sufficient income, overcrowding, poor housing or homelessness, and single parenting among others (Shaw et al., 2012). This can largely be attributed to the fact that smoking has been widely used by people as a means of virtually reducing their stress, more so when they face the mentioned economic conditions. Equally important, Shaw et al., point out that the cases of smoking in homes is more dominant among poor or low income parents (2012), and thus due to this fact, the people who come from a lower social group face the challenge of becoming addicted to smoking as compared to the people who come from higher social group. Besides, the people who reside in areas that are of lower socioeconomic status have less chances of experiencing or having a total ban on smoking in their homes relative to the individuals who reside in areas that are of high socioeconomic status. Besides, Shaw et al., contend that introduction of smoke free legislation will result to the reduction of cotinine levels among the children (2012). However, it is worth noting that Akhtar

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A Comparative Study of Accounting and the Environmental Factors Influencing Accounting in Australia and Sweden - Essay Example It begins with the discussion of Mueller’s classification of accounting then narrows down to the accounting values within which a comprehensive analysis of the Swedish and Australian accounting environments are based. Gerhard Mueller carried out an environmental analysis which supports the discussion on the accounting classifications. Gerhard identified four different approaches to the accounting development which provide the necessary categorization of countries based on accounting values. This includes the microeconomic pattern, macroeconomic pattern, uniform accounting pattern, and the independent discipline pattern (Mueller, 1967). The macroeconomic pattern is based on the interrelationship between business accounting and the economic policies of the nation. The corporate objectives are usually to follow instead of leading national economic policies. Business and economic stability is promoted through the smoothening of accounting income; to stimulate growth, adjustment of depreciation rates is necessary; to promote investment, the creation of special reserves is necessary; and to meet macroeconomic concerns it is necessary to develop social responsibility accounting. The examples given for this approach included French, Germany and Sweden. The microeconomic pattern on the other hand can be seen as a sub discipline of business economics. This pattern provides the focus directed towards the specific economic entities. In this pattern, economic analysis is the source of accounting concepts. An essential concept is determined by maintaining in real terms the monetary capital invested in the companies. The microeconomic approach is demonstrated by some companies in Netherlands and Australia through replacement-value accounting (Chanchani & Willett, 2004). Accounting is viewed in the light of an efficient method of control and administration derived from the uniform accounting

Market Structure Analysis and Appliance for the Stables in the Urban Case Study

Market Structure Analysis and Appliance for the Stables in the Urban Area of Des Moines, Iowa, USA - Case Study Example When considering the customer base for the stables, the horse owners seeking boarding for their horses are considered as important and basic customers. The ideal location for the stables is outskirts of the city. In that aspect the stables located down town of Des Moines of Iowa are in an ideal location. The demand for horse boarding services depends on the number of horses in the city. The desire of the owners to participate in horse related competitions plays an important role in creating the market for stables. The first aspect that increases business is the high income level of the customers. The next one is attracting high income groups towards horse competition related activities. One more aspect that needs consideration is buying and maintaining a horse. This is a luxury. So the economic decline if any is capable of reducing demand for horse boarding services and other operations. The stables can flourish by gaining the share in the market by providing services at reasonable p rices. They have to provide a good location regarding the facilities provided for horses. The horse stable business requires a considerable investment of time for planning to develop and market the operations of the firm. The ability to sell the services should be concentrated on high income individuals. Thus the horse boarding and offering of other services needs a patient approach. The individuals or a group that wants to develop a stable must follow the zoning and building ordinances governed by local municipality. The three stables down town Des Moines have satisfied the regulatory conditions of Des Moines Municipal Corporation. (Dean Dyck, p. 1) 4. Market Profile The assessment of market potential is crucial for marketing activities of a boarding stable enterprise like Irish Run Firm. The number of potential customers in Des Moines can be termed substantial as there are very few vacancies in the stalls of the stables. The services like training the horses and owners by giving them lessons should be provided in the right location. The firms considered here are satisfying that criteria. All the three firms; Irish Run Firms, Hunters Glen and Valley Park Stables are

Counselling and Psychotherapy Ethics Essay Example for Free

Counselling and Psychotherapy Ethics Essay Practitioners should give careful consideration to the limitations of their training and experience and work within these limits, taking advantage of available professional support. If work with clients requires the provision of additional services operating in parallel with counselling or psychotherapy, the availability of such services ought to be taken into account, as their absence may constitute a significant limitation. Good practice involves clarifying and agreeing the rights and responsibilities of both the practitioner and client at appropriate points in their working relationship. Dual relationships arise when the practitioner has two or more kinds of relationship concurrently with a client, for example client and trainee, acquaintance and client, colleague and supervisee. The existence of a dual relationship with a client is seldom neutral and can have a powerful beneficial or detrimental impact that may not always be easily foreseeable. For these reasons practitioners are required to consider the implications of entering into dual relationships with clients, to avoid entering into relationships that are likely to be detrimental to clients, and to be readily accountable to clients and colleagues for any dual relationships that occur. Practitioners are encouraged to keep appropriate records of their work with clients unless there are adequate reasons for not keeping any records. All records should be accurate, respectful of clients and colleagues and protected from unauthorised disclosure. Practitioners should take into account their responsibilities and their clients rights under data protection legislation and any other legal requirements. Clients are entitled to competently delivered services that are periodically reviewed by the practitioner. These reviews may be conducted, when appropriate, in consultation with clients, supervisors, managers or other practitioners with relevant expertise. Maintaining competent practice All counsellors, psychotherapists, trainers and supervisors are required to have regular and on-going formal supervision/consultative support for their work in accordance with professional requirements. Managers, researchers and providers of counselling skills are strongly encouraged to review their need for professional and personal support and to obtain appropriate services for themselves. Regularly monitoring and reviewing ones work is essential to maintaining good practice. It is important to be open to, and conscientious in considering, feedback from colleagues, appraisals and assessments. Responding constructively to feedback helps to advance practice. A commitment to good practice requires practitioners to keep up to date with the latest knowledge and respond to changing circumstances. They should consider carefully their own need for continuing professional development and engage in appropriate educational activities. Practitioners should be aware of and understand any legal requirements concerning their work, consider these conscientiously and be legally accountable for their practice. Keeping trust The practice of counselling and psychotherapy depends on gaining and honouring the trust of clients. Keeping trust requires: attentiveness to the quality of listening and respect offered to clients culturally appropriate ways of communicating that are courteous and clear respect for privacy and dignity areful attention to client consent and confidentiality Clients should be adequately informed about the nature of the services being offered. Practitioners should obtain adequately informed consent from their clients and respect a clients right to choose whether to continue or withdraw. Practitioners should ensure that services are normally delivered on the basis of the clients explicit consent. Reliance on implicit consent is more vulnerable to misunderstandings and is best avoided unless there are sound reasons for doing so. Overriding a clients known wishes or consent is a serious matter that requires commensurate justification. Practitioners should be prepared to be readily accountable to clients, colleagues and professional body if they override a clients known wishes. Situations in which clients pose a risk of causing serious harm to themselves or others are particularly challenging for the practitioner. These are situations in which the practitioner should be alert to the possibility of conflicting responsibilities between those concerning their client, other people who may be significantly affected, and society generally. Resolving conflicting responsibilities may require due consideration of the context in which the service is being provided. Consultation with a supervisor or experienced practitioner is strongly recommended, whenever this would not cause undue delay. In all cases, the aim should be to ensure for the client a good quality of care that is as respectful of the clients capacity for self-determination and their trust as circumstances permit. Working with young people requires specific ethical awareness and competence. The practitioner is required to consider and assess the balance between young peoples dependence on adults and carers and their progressive development towards acting independently. Working with children and young people requires careful consideration of issues concerning their capacity to give consent to receiving any service independently of someone with parental responsibilities and the management of confidences disclosed by clients. Respecting client confidentiality is a fundamental requirement for keeping trust. The professional management of confidentiality concerns the protection of personally identifiable and sensitive information from unauthorised disclosure. Disclosure may be authorised by client consent or the law. Any disclosures should be undertaken in ways that best protect the clients trust. Practitioners should be willing to be accountable to their clients and to their profession for their management of confidentiality in general and particularly for any disclosures made without their clients consent. Practitioners should normally be willing to respond to their clients requests for information about the way that they are working and any assessment that they may have made. This professional requirement does not apply if it is considered that imparting this information would be detrimental to the client or inconsistent with the counselling or psychotherapeutic approach previously agreed with the client. Clients may have legal rights to this information and these need to be taken into account. Practitioners must not abuse their clients trust in order to gain exual, emotional, financial or any other kind of personal advantage. Sexual relations with clients are prohibited. Sexual relations include intercourse, any other type of sexual activity or sexualised behaviour. Practitioners should think carefully about, and exercise considerable caution before, entering into personal or business relationships with former clients and should expect to be professionally accountable if the relation ship becomes detrimental to the client or the standing of the profession. Practitioners should not allow their professional relationships with clients to be prejudiced by any personal views they may hold about lifestyle, gender, age, disability, race, sexual orientation, beliefs or culture. Practitioners should be clear about any commitment to be available to clients and colleagues and honour these commitments. Teaching and training All practitioners are encouraged to share their professional knowledge and practice in order to benefit their clients and the public. Practitioners who provide education and training should acquire the skills, attitudes and knowledge required to be competent teachers and facilitators of learning. Practitioners are required to be fair, accurate and honest in their assessments of their students. Prior consent is required from clients if they are to be observed, recorded or if their personally identifiable disclosures are to be used for training purposes. Supervising and managing Practitioners are responsible for clarifying who holds responsibility for the work with the client. There is a general obligation for all counsellors, psychotherapists, supervisors and trainers to receive supervision/consultative support independently of any managerial relationships. Supervisors and managers have a responsibility to maintain and enhance good practice by practitioners, to protect clients from poor practice and to acquire the attitudes, skills and knowledge required by their role. Researching The Association is committed to fostering research that will inform and develop practice. All practitioners are encouraged to support research undertaken on behalf of the profession and to participate actively in research work. All research should be undertaken with rigorous attentiveness to the quality and integrity both of the research itself and of the dissemination of the results of the research. The rights of all research participants should be carefully considered and protected. The minimum rights include the right to freely given and informed consent, and the right to withdraw at any point. The research methods used should comply with the standards of good practice in counselling and psychotherapy and must not adversely affect clients. Fitness to practise Practitioners have a responsibility to monitor and maintain their fitness to practise at a level that enables them to provide an effective service. If their effectiveness becomes impaired for any reason, including health or personal circumstances, they should seek the advice of their supervisor, experienced colleagues or line manager and, if necessary, withdraw from practice until their fitness to practise returns. Suitable arrangements should be made for clients who are adversely affected. If things go wrong with own clients Practitioners should respond promptly and appropriately to any complaint received from their clients. An appropriate response in agency-based services would take account of any agency policy and procedures. Practitioners should endeavour to remedy any harm they may have caused to their clients and to prevent any further harm. An apology may be the appropriate response. Practitioners should discuss, with their supervisor, manager or other experienced practitioner(s), the circumstancess in which they may have harmed a client in order to ensure that the appropriate steps have been taken to mitigate any harm and to prevent any repetition. Practitioners are strongly encouraged to ensure that their work is adequately covered by insurance for professional indemnity and liability. If practitioners consider that they have acted in accordance with good practice but their client is not satisfied that this is the case, they may wish to use independent dispute resolution, for example: seeking a second professional opinion, mediation, or conciliation where this is both appropriate and practical. Clients should be informed about the existence of the Professional Conduct Procedure of this Association and any other applicable complaints or disciplinary procedures. If requested to do so, practitioners should inform their clients about how they may obtain further information concerning these procedures. Responsibilities to all clients Practitioners have a responsibility to protect clients when they have good reason for believing that other practitioners are placing them at risk of harm. They should raise their concerns with the practitioner concerned in the first instance, unless it is inappropriate to do so. If the matter cannot be resolved, they should review the grounds for their concern and the evidence available to them and, when appropriate, raise their concerns with the practitioners manager, agency or professional body. If they are uncertain what to do, their concerns should be discussed with an experienced colleague, a supervisor or raised with this Association. All members of this Association share a responsibility to take part in its professional conduct procedures whether as the person complained against or as the provider of relevant information. Working with colleagues The increasing availability of counselling and psychotherapy means that most practitioners have other practitioners working in their locality, or may be working closely with colleagues within specialised or multidisciplinary teams. The quality of the interactions between practitioners can enhance or undermine the claim that counselling and psychotherapy enable clients to increase their insight and expertise in personal relationships. This is particularly true for practitioners who work in agencies or teams. Working in teams Professional relationships should be conducted in a spirit of mutual respect. Practitioners should endeavour to attain good working relationships and systems of communication that enhance services to clients at all times. Practitioners should treat all colleagues fairly and foster equality opportunity. They should not allow their professional relationships with colleagues to be prejudiced by their own personal views about a colleagues lifestyle, gender, age, disability, race, sexual orientation, beliefs or culture. It is unacceptable and unethical to discriminate against colleagues on any of these grounds. Practitioners must not undermine a colleagues relationships with clients by making unjustified or unsustainable comments. All communications between colleagues about clients should be on a professional basis and thus purposeful, respectful and consistent with the management of confidences as declared to clients. Awareness of context The practitioner is responsible for learning about and taking account of the different protocols, conventions and customs that can pertain to different working contexts and cultures. Making and receiving referrals All routine referrals to colleagues and other services should be discussed with the client in advance and the clients consent obtained both to making the referral and also to disclosing information to accompany the referral. Reasonable care should be taken to ensure that: the recipient of the referral is able to provide the required service; any confidential information disclosed during the referral process will be adequately protected; the referral will be likely to benefit the client. Prior to accepting a referral the practitioner should give careful consideration to: the appropriateness of the referral; the likelihood that the referral will be beneficial to the client; the adequacy of the clients consent for the referral. If the referrer is professionally required to retain overall responsibility for the work with the client, it is considered to be professionally appropriate to provide the referrer with brief progress reports. Such reports should be made in consultation with clients and not normally against their explicit wishes. Probity in professional practice Ensuring the probity of practice is important both to those who are directly affected but also to the standing of the profession as a whole. Providing clients with adequate information Practitioners are responsible for clarifying the terms on which their services are being offered in advance of the client incurring any financial obligation or other reasonably foreseeable costs or liabilities. All information about services should be honest, accurate, avoid unjustifiable claims, and be consistent with maintaining the good standing of the profession. Particular care should be taken over the integrity of presenting qualifications, accreditation and professional standing. Financial arrangements Practitioners are required to be honest, straightforward and accountable in all financial matters concerning their clients and other professional relationships. Conflicts of interest Conflicts of interest are best avoided, provided they can be reasonably foreseen in the first instance and prevented from arising. In deciding how to respond to conflicts of interest, the protection of the clients interests and maintaining trust in the practitioner should be paramount. Care of self as a practitioner Attending to the practitioners well-being is essential to sustaining good practice. Practitioners have a responsibility to themselves to ensure that their work does not become detrimental to their health or well-being by ensuring that the way that they undertake their work is as safe as possible and that they seek appropriate professional support and services as the need arises. Practitioners are entitled to be treated with proper consideration and respect that is consistent with this Guidance.

Analyse Evidence For Case Linkage In Criminal Profiling Psychology Essay

Analyse Evidence For Case Linkage In Criminal Profiling Psychology Essay For thousands of years inferences of a persons characteristics from their thoughts, motives, and actions have been made (Canter Alison, 1997) although the application of these inferences to criminal investigations was first done in the 1970s by the FBI (Egger, 1999). Offender profiling, now known as behavioural investigative advice, is the process of providing inferences of likely offender characteristics based on crime scene information (Canter Alison, 1999). Case linkage is now more commonly known as linkage analysis which is the process of identifying whether or not a series of crimes have been committed by the same offender using crime scene behaviours (Hazelwood Warren, 2003). Case linkage produces similar fact evidence in legal cases so that offenders can be charged with numerous offences (Ormerod, 1999). Case linkage can also allow all relevant crime scene information to be pooled thus making the use of investigative resources more efficient (Grubin, Kelly, Burnsden, 2001). The practices of case linkage and offender profiling have overlapping as well as separate assumptions. Case linkage and offender profiling both use theories from personality psychology and the assumption underlying the practices of both offender profiling and case linkage is consistency (Woodhams Toye, 2007). Regarding offender profiling, individuals need to be consistent in their actions for there to be similarity associations between an individuals behaviour and characteristics (Mokros Alison, 2002). In reference to case linkage, this consistency refers to the offender exhibiting similar behaviours each time he or she offends (Canter, 1995; Grubin et al., 2001; Woodhams, Hollin, Bull, 2007). If offenders were not consistent in their offending behaviour, then it would not be possible to determine which single offender committed the crimes on the basis of their behavioural similarity. An additional assumption underlying the practice of offender profiling is homology (Alison, Benne ll, Mokros, Ormerod, 2002). This assumption states that offenders who commit crimes in a similar style will have similar background characteristics (Woodhams Toye, 2007). Therefore, offenders who have different crime scene behaviour will have different characteristics. According to Woodhams and Toye (2007) an additional assumption underlying the practice of case linkage is behavioural distinctiveness. This assumption refers to the actions of an individual serial offender being different to other offenders committing similar crimes. This paper will now discuss the evidence for the assumptions underlying the practices of case linkage and offender profiling. Then methods to combat the problems of the assumptions underlying the practices of case linkage and offender profiling will be presented. Finally, a conclusion will be reached as to whether there is enough evidence to support the assumptions underlying the practices of case linkage and offender profiling to produce valid and useful results. Case linkage and offender profiling: Behavioural consistency Behavioural consistency is an assumption that underlies the practices of case linkage and offender profiling. Psychological research has defined behavioural consistency as the repetition of particular aspects of behaviour if the same offender engages in the same type of offence again (Canter, 1995). Conversely, criminological research has defined behavioural consistency as the probability that an individual will repeatedly commit similar types of offences (Farrington, 1997). With regard to case linkage, it refers to the hypothesis that people are consistent in their behaviour across situations and the consistency assumption of offender profiling implies that the behaviour of one offender must be more consistent than the behaviour between all other offenders (Woodhams Toye, 2007). Behavioural consistency has been investigated by personality psychology studies and the hypothesis has been confirmed that people produce similar behaviour when they are faced with situations with similar psychological meaning to them (Mischel Shoda, 1995). There is also supporting evidence that offenders commit crime in a consistent manner. For example, Farrington and Lambert (1997) showed that offenders are consistent in the choice of crime type. Furthermore, offenders have been shown to be consistent in their behaviour across robbery (Woodhams Toye, 2007), arson (Santtila, Fritzon, Tamelander, 2005), burglary (Bennell Canter, 2002), homicide (Salfati Bateman, 2005), and sexual assault (Grubin et al., 2001). Therefore, there is evidence of the consistency assumption that underlies the practices of offender profiling and case linkage. Case linkage: Behavioural consistency and distinctiveness A necessity in proving consistency for investigative purposes is that an individuals behavioural variation must be less than others to be investigatively useful which Woodhams and Toye (2007) named distinctiveness. An example of this behavioural consistency is that Jack the offender always robs a bank at gun point which is 100 percent consistent. Although if the majority of other bank robbers also rob banks at gun point then it cannot be concluded that Jack has committed the burglary in question. This consistency can be tested by predicting whether two crimes are committed by the same offender (linked) or by two different offenders (unlinked). Grubin et al. (2001) combined behavioural consistency and distinctiveness and found that linked crime and unlinked crimes are able to be reliably distinguished using behavioural consistency and distinctiveness theory. Using this approach, research with robberies and burglaries by Bennell and Jones (2005), have also shown that linkage status can be accurately predicted. Cervone and Shoda (1999) have researched personality psychology and found that people consistently exhibit individual differences on some personality traits in similar situations which provides support of case linkage (Bennell Canter, 2002). Although a review by Biesanz, West, and Kwok (2003) showed that personality psychologists and investigative psychologists examine consistency and distinctiveness differently. Shoda (1999) states that personality psychologists see individuals as demonstrating similar trait-related behaviour in different situations and although peoples behaviour does change in different situations they remain relatively stable compared to other people. For example, if person B is more aggressive in one situation than person A, then in different situations, person B will always exhibit more aggressive behaviour than person A although they both exhibit different levels of aggression in different situations. Although personality psychologists are able to observe beha viour in highly controlled experimental conditions, the same cannot be done by investigative psychologists. Instead they use behavioural signatures, modus operandi, or psychological themes to determine the support of the behavioural distinctiveness and consistency assumptions which will be discussed next. Behavioural signature Hazelwood and Warren (2003) state that signatures are ritualised actions that are not necessary to commit or conceal the crime but are unique fantasies and drives of the offender to commit the crimes. These actions aid case linkage as they will be consistently exhibited in all of an offenders crimes (Hazelwood Warren, 2003). There is some evidence for the existence of signatures in serial homicide and rape (Hazelwood Warren, 2003), although there is no empirical evidence. One reason for this is that signatures may not be identified at crime scenes due to victim reactions or other situational factors (Douglas Munn, 1992). Furthermore, Labuschagne (2006) states that foraging animals and body decomposition may disrupt the crime scene. Finally, it is difficult to separate the offenders behavioural signature from the modus operandi (Hazelwood Warren, 2003). From the evidence presented above, behavioural signatures may only exist in particular types of relatively rare crimes such as fantasy-driven, interpersonal, and serial violent crimes in specific situations. Therefore there is not enough evidence to support the use of behavioural signatures to determine behavioural consistency and distinctiveness as part of case linkage for all crimes. Modus Operandi (MO) Douglas and Munn (1992) state that the MO of offenders are the behaviours that an offender exhibits to commit the crime. Although greatly used by police in the past (Douglas Munn, 1992), MOs can change over the course of a crime series (Hazelwood Warren, 2003) due to factors such as unavailability of victims, victim reactions, interruptions, education, experience, and maturation (Hazelwood Warren, 2003). Despite the above findings, depending on the MO behaviour being observed there are sufficient levels of distinctiveness and consistency to make case linkage possible beyond chance levels e.g. rape (Grubin et al., 2001) and commercial robbery (Woodhams Toye, 2007). Bennell and Jones (2005) found that although an analysis of property stolen during serial burglaries had a moderate level of linking accuracy, an analysis of distances between crimes produced much higher accuracy scores. The authors found that the closer together the burglaries, the more likely that they were committed by the same offender. Bennell and Canter (2002) have found that MOs which are brought to the scene by the offender such as where the offence took place (offender-driven) versus what was stolen (situation-driven), are the most stable and distinct. Seeing as some behaviours are more consistent and are therefore more accurate at predicting case linkage allows analysts to be more efficient in only using the most consistent behaviours and also more accurate at predicting linkage (Woodhams Toye, 2007). Psychological themes Consistency can found in an offenders crimes despite differences in MO as when using the thematic approach consistency is defined at a more general level related to the function of the behaviour as opposed to discrete behaviours. For example, Salfati and Bateman (2005) state that when an offender cuts or tortures the victim, this behaviour suggests an expressive theme and the murder was part of an emotionally fuelled assault. Whereas when the victim is sexually assaulted or the body is posed, this behaviour demonstrates an instrumental theme and the aim of the murder was to achieve sexual gratification or something else beyond the murder. The research into consistency and distinctiveness regarding psychological themes is promising (Salfati Bateman, 2005) although when more stringent criteria to assign crimes to predominant themes, the results are not as convincing (Bateman Salfati, 2007). Woodhams et al. (2007) have argued that measuring consistency using the psychological themes approach to case linkage has limited use when offenders are not able to be easily categorised into predominant themes. The authors also state that this approach may be too general to be used for identifying different offenders although it can be argued that this depends on the type of crime as it may be more applicable for rare crimes compared to more common crimes. Even though there is evidence that offenders crime series demonstrate behavioural distinctiveness and consistency as discussed above, crime analysts and police investigators may not be able to link crimes. For example, Canter et al. (1991) state that it is difficult to correctly identify crime scene behaviours appropriate for case linkage as attention may focus on behaviours that are not distinct or not stably exhibited. Methods to combat the problems of case linkage Cluster analysis, across-crime similarity coefficients, logistic regression analysis, and Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis are analytical strategies employed to combat the problems of the assumptions underlying the practice of case linkage. Each of these strategies will be detailed next. Cluster analysis Cluster analysis places the crimes on a plot where the shorter the distance between plots the greater the similarity there is between the crimes (Green, Booth, Biderman, 1976). The closer the crimes are together the more likely they are to be linked. The study by Green et al. (1976) found this analytical approach to be highly successful at linking the crimes of three burglars. Although there are some drawbacks to this method as it is not yet determined as to what specific distance suggests that the crimes are linked. Across-crime similarity coefficients Woodhams and Toye (2007) state that across-crime similarity coefficients quantify the degree of behavioural distinctiveness and consistency between two crimes. Woodhams and Toye (2007) used the Jaccard coefficients to see whether pairs of robbery crimes were linked based on the similarity of offence behaviours. Seeing as this coefficient ranges from 0 to 1, a large coefficient reflects a greater amount of across-crime similarity. In relation to the assumptions underlying the practice of case linkage, small similarity coefficients associated with different offender crimes suggests behavioural distinctiveness. Conversely, large similarity coefficients are associated with same offender crimes suggests consistency. Woodhams and Toye (2007) found that compared with unlinked crime pairs, linked pairs had greater similarity in behaviour exhibited between offences committed by the same criminal than between offences committed by different offenders. In addition, the difference between linked and unlinked crimes was significant for overall and within each behaviour. These findings support the offender behavioural consistency hypothesis underlying the practices of case linkage as well as offender profiling. Logistic regression analysis Bennell and Canter (2002) state that logistic regression analysis can be used to produce predicted probabilities that crime pairs are linked. This is done by combining the values of predictor variables such as across-crime similarity scores related to entry method, characteristics of the target, and the property stolen. Woodhams and Toye (2007) used logistic regression analysis to determine whether robberies were linked and produced accurate linking decisions. Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis The measures of linking accuracy described above are threshold specific in that the accuracy score is only relevant when a specific decision threshold is used. To counter this problem, ROC analysis can be used in addition to these measures (Woodhams Toye, 2007). ROC analysis quantifies the level of linking accuracy associated with lining cues (inter-offence distance) or case linkage tools (e.g., cluster analysis, across-crime similarity coefficients, and logistic regression analysis). This method is not affected by the decision threshold that was used to determine whether or not the crimes were linked. Studies using ROC analysis have set suitable decision thresholds for linking purposes as well as producing valid measures of linking accuracy (e.g., Bennell Jones, 2005) demonstrating that methods such as logistic regression used in conjunction with ROC analysis can accurately link serial crimes. Offender profiling: Homology Despite different methods of profiling being multi-disciplinary and overlapping, the approaches can be segregated into three broad categories: clinical practitioner, statistical, and criminal investigative (Wilson, Lincoln, Kocsis, 1997). The FBI model is a criminal investigative approach and it is the most common. It is used in USA, Canada, Australia, UK, Germany, Sweden, Norway, and Holland amongst others. The work of Babcock, Boon, and Britton (Copson, Babcock, Boon, Britton, 1997) is an example of the clinical approach whereas David Canters (Canter Heritage, 1990) work is representative of the statistical approach. In the past, the FBI model has been criticised for being based upon opinion and intuition rather than fact and solid methodology which lacks the element of psychological theory (Canter Alison, 1999). Now it takes more of a scientific approach by publishing empirical findings. The clinical practitioner approach emphasises its use of psychological, psychiatric, clinical, or mental health research or knowledge. Finally, the statistical approach infers psychological processes and characteristics of offenders using the multivariate analysis of behaviour at the crime scene as well as other crime scene information (Canter Alison, 1999). Pinizzotto and Finkel (1990) state that professional profilers first assess the type of criminal act with reference to individuals who have committed similar acts previously. Then they analyze the crime scene, the victims background, and any possible suspects. Next profilers establish the possible motivations of all the individuals involved. Finally, a description of the offender is created from the characteristics identified with such a psychological disposition. Homology is an assumption that underlies the practice of offender profiling and suggests that similar offence styles are associated with similar background characteristics (Woodhams Toye, 2007). Thus offenders with similar offence behaviours have similar background characteristics. The complex relationships between a given action and a given characteristic are made to profile clusters of background features from crime scene actions to develop a psychological picture of the suspect (Alison et al., 2002). These relationships involve multivariate forms of prediction in which specific sets of actions are linked to specific sets of characteristics. Although the results of these analyses are not convincing when tested (Alison, 2002). Alison et al. (2002) state that current offender profiling methods rely on an outdated understanding of personality and the trait approach. Alison et al. (2002) found that the homology assumption is not supported as it uses global traits, or broad personality types, which are unlikely to be useful in predicting criminal behaviour. These traditional personality trait theories suggest that all offenders behaviours are affected in predictable ways (deterministic) and that behaviour remains stable despite different environmental influences (nonsituationist) (Alison et al., 2002). Furthermore, Mischel and Peake (1982) demonstrated that global trait theories fail to allow predictions of behaviour across specific situations. Alison et al. (2002) suggest that it is unlikely that the classification of offenders into broad personality types would enable the profiler to relate clusters of sociodemographic characteristics to different types. Profilers often make inferences about offender characteristics that are not appropriate for a psychological definition e.g. age, ethnicity, marital status, gender, degree of sexual maturity, and possible reactions to police questioning (Alison et al. 2002). Woodhams and Toye (2007) tested the homology assumption by identifying three different styles of robbery behaviour and investigated whether commercial robbers with different offence behaviour styles were significantly different to each another on ethnicity, employment, previous convictions, age, and distance to crime. No significant differences were found which suggests no support for the homology assumption. The homology assumption has also been investigated using regression analyses to determine if certain offence behaviours can reliably predict offender characteristics although there has been little support found for the homology assumption (Tonkin, Bond, Woodhams, 2009). For example, Mokros and Alison (2002) investigated rapists and defined homology as a positive linear relationship between the similarities of crime scene actions and similarities in background characteristics of the offenders. The researchers investigated whether similarity in personal characteristics (e.g., ethnicity, age, employment status, marital status, criminal record, and education) was correlated with similarity in offence behaviour. No linear relationships were observed with similarity in behaviour. Therefore there was no evidence found for the homology assumption. Despite this lack of evidence for the homology assumption, there has been success with homicide (Salfati Canter, 1999), burglary, assault, robbery, actual bodily harm and violent disorder (Farrington Lambert, 2000), and sexual assault (Santtila, Ritvanen, Mokros, 2004) offences at determining offender characteristics from crime scene behaviour. In summary, using bivariate predictive analyses, relationships between specific characteristics and actions have been found (Aitken et al., 1996) although it has been argued that these are simplistic compared to the profiles that have been produced over the years (e.g. Pinizzotto Finkel, 1990). Alison et al. (2002) state that a direct link between offence behaviour and offender characteristics is unlikely to exist because of the influence of the situation effecting offence behaviour. In addition, the authors state that profilers often make inferences regarding offender characteristics (e.g., gender, ethnicity, and age) from behaviour that is not appropriate according to Bem and Allens (1974) personality theory. Therefore, the research into the homology assumption has been less supportive (Woodhams Toye, 2007). Interestingly, there have been many reviews of profiling based on the opinions of detectives about the usefulness of the advice that they received, the overall opinion was th at the advice was of use (Woodhams Toye, 2007). Methods to combat the problems of offender profiling and case linkage A method to combat the problems of the assumptions underlying the practice of offender profiling and case linkage is for police forces to enter crime scene information (including motivational and behavioural characteristics) into databases. The Violent Crime Case linkage System (ViCLAS: Collins, Johnson, Choy, Davidson, Mackay, 1998) is the most popular of the databases and was first used by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police to profile offenders and identify serial offenders. This system can record 200 items of information from each crime scene which analysts can search when a new crime is committed. This system is widely used in the UK and assists offender profiling as well as case linkage by providing a way to manage the mass of information although there is little research on its effectiveness. Beauregard (2005) states sharing information between investigators and researchers is a way to develop offender profiling as it standardises data reliability. Alison et al. (2004) state that this pragmatic profiling (sharing information, investigative advice, and profiles) is the way forward for profiling and case linkage. Yokota, Fujita, Watanabe, Yoshimoto, and Wachi (2007) have even developed a computerised profiling system that takes in the details of an offence and produces the offender characteristics. Finally, Alison et al. (2002) suggest that a theoretical framework that emphasizes the importance of Person X Situation interactions in generating behaviour may be more productive. Recent research by Goodwill and Alison (2007) has included these aspects into predictive analysis of offender characteristics from crime scene information and stated that the relationship between offender characteristics and the crime scene may be influenced by other aspects of the crime. Therefore, using the contemporary trait perspective would include contextual details that effect behaviour and thus make inferences from crime scene behaviours more valid and useful. Conclusion In summary, there is evidence highlighting problems with the consistency, homology, and behavioural distinctiveness assumptions underlying the practices of offender profiling and case linkage. Regarding offender profiling, ignoring contextual and situational variables of offending makes homology and consistency unreliable and possibly invalid. The simple behaviour and characteristics approach to offender profiling is not adequate. It may be argued that a significant component of offender profiling is based on intuition rather than scientific research (Pinizzotto Finkel, 1990). On conclusion of the evidence for homology, the practice of offender profiling does not include current psychological theory and therefore would not be appropriate for use in court as expert witness evidence. The homology assumption has not seen as much research as the behavioural consistency and distinctiveness assumptions. There is greater support for the consistency and distinctiveness assumptions underlyin g the practice of case linkage when additional measures are used to improve validity and usefulness. Methods to improve the practices of case linkage and offender profiling include the use of databases, pragmatic profiling, and automation. Methods to improve case linkage include cluster analysis, across-crime similarity coefficients, and logistic regression analysis. These analytical techniques improve the practices of case linkage and offender profiling as they are able to accurately handle large amounts of data. The drawback to many of these approaches is that they do not specifically state what probability level should be used to determine whether or not crimes and behaviours are linked. These measures of linking accuracy are threshold specific in that the accuracy score can only relevant when a specific decision threshold is used. To counter this flaw, ROC analysis has proven to accurately link crimes when used in conjunction with these methods. It is important to have valid assumptions underlying the practices of case linkage and offender profiling as incorrect advice could mislead a police investigation and be costly in financial and human terms. Greater research is desperately needed into the effectiveness of the use of databases to assist case linkage and offender profiling. These databases are in widespread use despite a lack of research on their effectiveness. Word Count: 3814

Falstaffs Influence on Prince Hal in I Henry IV :: Henry IV Henry V Essays

Falstaff's Influence on Prince Hal in I Henry IV   Ã‚  Ã‚   In Shakespearean histories, there is always one individual who influences the major character and considerably advances the plot.   In I Henry IV by William Shakespeare, Falstaff is such a character.   Sir John Falstaff is perhaps the most complex comic character ever invented.   He carries a dignified presence in the mind's eye; and in him,   we recognize our internal admiration and jealousy of the rebellious dual personality that we all secretly wish for. The multi-faceted Falstaff, in comic revolt against law and order, in his role as father figure to Prince Hal, and ultimately, in his natural ability to discern and adapt to any situation, emerges as the most complex and paradoxical character in drama.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Frequently, in literature, the sun represents royalty, or in this case the king, who strives to uphold law and order.   Rhetorically, the moon, symbolizes instability, not only because it does not remain the same size to one's eyes as time passes, but because it reigns the ebb and flow of the tides. Therefore, as a knight guided by moonlight, Falstaff is a dissenter against law and order.   This conclusion finds support in his witty tautologies and epithets. Falstaff is invariably aware that Hal will one day become king, and when that happens, robbers will be honored in England by   "Let[ting] us be indulgence Diana's foresters, gentlemen of the shade, monions of the moon; and let[ting] men say we be men of good government, being governed as the sea is, by our novle and chaste mistress the moon, under whose countenance we steal" (I, ii, 25-30). Falstaff's final dismissal of law and order culminates with a comic plea to the prince, urging him to have nothing to do with "old father antic the law?   Do not thou, when thou art King, hang a thief" (I, ii, 62-63).   We see a similar epithet in the next act, "send him packing" (II, iv, 301), in which Falstaff again denounces responsibility, law, and order.   Despite his lack of care for order and responsibility, the rebel dormant in readers applauds Falstaff's defiance of the establishment of his defense.   Falstaff seems to appeal to the average reader, for he relates to them, just as a twentieth-century American

Essay on African American Culture -- World Cultures Essays Papers

Essay on African American Culture Works Cited Missing African American culture is defined as the learned, shared and transmitted values, beliefs, norms, and life ways carried by this group of people, which guides their decisions, thinking, and actions in patterned ways. The individual in society is bound by rules of their culture. Culture of people are different in that the same events that maybe fear- inducing in one culture, maybe anger-inducing in another culture (Leininger's, 1991). The theoretical framework that I used for this paper is Leininger's Sunrise Model. It describes the factors that have to be assessed in order to provide competent trans cultural care for a culture. These include educational factors, economic factors, political and legal factors, cultural values and life ways, kinship and social factors, religious and philosophical factors, technological factors, generic or folk systems within a cultural care worldview (Leininger's, 1991). There is tremendous diversity among African Americans. They live in all areas of the United States and come from all socioeconomic levels. Approximately ninety percent of African Americans have some Caucasian ancestry and at least twenty-five have Native American ancestry. They are more present time oriented group of people. However, there may be strong future oriented behaviors as well. These include saving for college education for children, purchasing insurance policies to cover funeral and burial cost, etc. Elders may place a great deal of values on past experiences, which are frequently shared with younger individuals. The dominant language among African American is English. Speech may be accompanied by animated non-verbal gestures such as a hand movemen... ...at prevented them to keep their appointments, make lifestyle changes, and take medications as prescribed. Positive influences were the support of close family members and also the presence of caring health care providers (Rose et al., 2000). The review of literature corresponds to the African Americans risk of getting hypertension. It showed that African American are at a higher risk for hypertension because many of them are unwilling to seek medical care and even when they do they do not take their medications as prescribed. Hypertension will continue to be a major cause of death all for Americans especially African Americans. Limitations in care for the under-served will continue to be a growing problem. Solutions must be made to provide the delivery of high quality, lower cost and especially effective primary care to the underserved populations.

The Unexamined Life Is Not Worth Living Essay examples -- essays resea

Socrates was considered by many to be the wisest man in ancient Greece. While he was eventually condemned for his wisdom, his spoken words are still listened to and followed today. When, during his trial, Socrates stated that, â€Å"the unexamined life is not worth living† (Plato 45), people began to question his theory. They began to wonder what Socrates meant with his statement, why he would feel that a life would not be worth living. To them, life was above all else, and choosing to give up life would be out of the picture. They did not understand how one would choose not to live life just because he would be unable to examine it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Socrates felt that if he was unable to examine life, he would not be really living. To Socrates, living meant being able to question the world around him. Examining life gives one freedom. Once one examines himself and understands who he is, he can take control of his life. Socrates believed that the ability to ask, to examine, and to understand would make a life whole. He believed that the purpose of life was to grow, both physically and spiritually. Being able to explore and understand would lead to a deeper understanding of the world around us as well as a deeper understanding of ourselves. (Plato 46)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Socrates felt that, above all, one should be a good citizen and always do the right thing (Plato 18). However, many in his time did not worry about doing what was correct. Socrates realized this, and understood that they did not care to look into their actions and beliefs. Their first thoughts were on the goals that they had, such as money and pleasure, rather than the thought of whether or not the goals they held were actually what should have been considered important and right (Plato 26). Socrates knew that, unless they took the time to question their lifestyles, they would never do the right thing. By living a life that was being examined, the citizens would be living a life that was, for the most part, also right. Socrates believed that a life that was not right was not worth living, which is why he also felt as though an unexamined life would also be not worth living.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Socrates was brought to trial for the corruption of the city’s youth he knew he had done nothing wrong. He had lived his life as it should be lead, and did what he ne... ... when he is discussing the unexamined life. When Socrates mentions the oracle, he is explaining how one can believe he knows all but still can question life. Although he believes that a smarter man will not be found, Socrates still questions and examines the life he leads. This is the basic concept of philosophy, to try to examine and understand what is going on in life. Socrates understands that without this questioning, there would be no philosophy or a worthwhile life. (Plato 25)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Socrates was a wise man who realized that life was not something that could be easily understood. He knew that questioning life would lead to a stronger conception of life and reality. When he stated that â€Å"the unexamined life is not worth living† (Plato 45), he truly meant that without questioning life, one would not be truly living. Actions would have no understanding of being right or wrong. For Socrates, a man who believed that life should be based on what was right, there would be no greater wrongdoing.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited Plato. Apology. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Educational, 1977.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

President Buddha

Buddhism states that Amitabha did not in fact create the world; this is because the world is so impure and detestable and Amitabha is far superior and perfect to ever have created the world. In a government run by this Buddhist belief it would be a continuous effort being made to reiterate the fact that the world is evil and a lot would be done in order to try and purify this state of being. Thus, a lot would change in a government run with the Buddhist belief: From healthcare to employment, the changes of such a society would be immense and drastic.The main belief of Buddhist is a state of Nirvana, and it is with this state that the rules governing the country would be based. This paper will explore the hypothesis of a Buddhist government, the changes it would make, and how it would affect the lives of the citizenry from their jobs to what is held sacred in this world. Buddhism is based on the teaching of Siddhartha, who is known universally as Buddha (Delahunt, 2006). In the Buddhi st belief, suffering is a part of life, not an emotion or state of being outside of the natural world.In the ancient Buddhist teachings, suffering can be superceded or be traversed by the Buddhist student who acquires mental and moral self-purification (Delahunt). Thus, a government based on Buddhist beliefs would have campaign slogans and propaganda commercials illustrating the belief that although one is suffering now with gas prices, war, poor health care and lack of job security, can all be overcome with meditation and proper spiritual guidance. Therefore in a Buddhist government part of the health care system would offer spiritual therapy in order to come to this spiritual enlightenment.Since the philosophy of Buddhism requires an abandonment of material possessions, the earthly life is transitory. Therefore, the market industry under a Buddhist run government would have a failing import export scenario but on the other hand the country would be self-sufficient and harvest thei r own necessary food supplies which would definitely bring job security to farmers. A major issue that would arise from this would be corporate run farms and the individual farmer; it would seem that individual farmers would be the main occupation of the worker under this government.Buddhism does not render revelation to be intrinsically involved in their religion because God knows all and this knowledge is passed on to them, , â€Å"In the Buddhist scriptures, there is something remarkably indistinct and evanescent; there is the spirit of the disintegration, of the dispersal of individuality. The I does not act resolutely. † (Otto 97). In Buddhism, sickness would heal itself through death and when Nirvana was reached, such earthly trivialities would be of no concern.Corpulent emotions and feelings would be annihilated in Nirvana while in heaven an over flooding of love and forgiveness would be the reality. In this line of thinking health insurance would have a drastically lo w rate of sales since death was conceptualized as an extension of life, and the profit margin on this would have no lasting effect on a Buddhist government since material possessions such as money or items money can buy would become un-important the general psyche and welfare of the people.Bibliography Delahunt, Michael. Buddhist Art. 2006. < http://www. artlex. com/ArtLex/b/Buddhism. html> Otto, Rudolf. Buddhism and Christianity Compared and Contrasted. Ed. Trans. Philip C. Almond. University of Hawaii. 1984. Ser-Odjav, Namsrain. (March, 1986). Treasures of Mongolia. UNESCO Courier. < http://www. findarticles. com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1986_March/ai_4153135>

Managerial Essay

Problems Chapter 4 Problem 4-26 Moravia Company processes and packages cream cheese. The following data have been compiled for the month of April. Conversion activity occurs uniformly throughout the production process. 1) Analysis of physical flow of units. 2) Calculation of equivalent units. 3) Computation of unit costs. 4) Analysis of total costs. 5) Build a Spreadsheet: Construct an Excel spreadsheet to solve all of the preceding requirements. Show how the solution will change if the following data change: the April 1 work in process costs were $27,000 for direct material and $5,000 for conversion. 1.| |   Physical Units| | Work in process, April 1| 10,000| | Units started during April| 100,000| | Total units to account for| 110,000| | Units completed and transferred out during April| 80,000| | Work in process, April 30| 30,000| | Total units accounted for| 110,000| 2.| | | | | | | | Physical Units| Percentage of Completion with Respect to Conversion| Equivalent Units| | | | | Direct Material| Conversion| | Work in process, April 1| 10,000  | 20%| | | | Units started during April| 100,000  | | | | | Total units to account for| 110,000  | | | | | Units completed and transferred out during April| 80,000  | 100%| 80,000| 80,000   | | Work in process, April 30|  30,000  | 33.33%|  30,000|  9,900   | | Total units accounted for| 110,000  | | | | | Total equivalent units| | | 110,000| 89,900   | 3.| | | | | | | Direct Material| Conversion|   Total| | Work in process, April 1| $22,000| $ 4,500| $26,500  | | Costs incurred during April|  198,000|  158,400|  356,400  | | Total costs to account for| $220,000| $162,900| $382,900  | | Equivalent units| 110,000| 89,900| | | Costs per equivalent unit| $2.00| $1.81| $3.81  | 4.| Cost of goods completed and transferred out during April:| | | | | | | (Units Transferred) *(Total Cost per equiv. unit) =| 80,000ï€  Ã¯â€š ´Ã¯â‚¬  $3.81| $304,961| | | | | Cost remaining in April 30 work-in-process inventory:| | | | | | | Direct material:| | | | | | | | (# of equivalent units of Direct Material ) * ( Cost per Equivalent Unit of Direct Material) =| 30,000ï€  Ã¯â€š ´Ã¯â‚¬  $2.00| $60,000| | | | | | Conversion:| | | | | | | | (# of equivalent units of conversion) * (Cost per equivalent unit of conversion) =| 9,900ï€  Ã¯â€š ´Ã¯â‚¬  $1.81|   17,939| | | | | | Total cost of April 30 work in process| $77,919| | | | | | Check: Cost of goods completed and transferred out| $304,961| | Cost of April 30 work-in-process inventory|  17,939| | Total costs accounted for| $382,900| | | | | 5Build a Spreadsheet: Construct an Excel spreadsheet to solve all of the preceding requirements. Show how the solution will change if the following data change: the April 1 work in process costs were $27,000 for direct material and $5,000 for conversion.|